lunes, 4 de junio de 2012
Gramática de los casos
La gramática de casos es el módulo gramatical que se encarga de estudiar la distribución y el movimiento de los sintagmas nominales. Como teoría de análisis gramatical fue desarrollada a partir 1968 por el lingüista americano Charles J. Fillmore en el contexto de la Gramática transformacional. Según esta teoría, una predicación está constituida por un verbo que es combinado con uno o varios papeles temáticos, tales como el Agente, el Tema o el Instrumental. Estos papeles temáticos toman la forma de sintagmas nominales, y la distribución de estos viene dada por el caso gramatical, que es una propiedad asignada a los SN de manera obligatoria, pues en caso de carecer de ella, la frase resultante no sería gramatical. La labor del caso es pues la de asignar una función gramatical específica a cada sintagma nominal.
En la teoría de Fillmore, el verbo selecciona un cierto número de casos profundos o papeles temáticos que forman su marco casual. Así, el marco casual abastece de información importante sobre la valencia semántica del sintagma verbal, del adjetival y del nomimal. Los casos profundos están sometidos a un cierto número de restricciones: por ejemplo, un caso profundo puede aparecer en una frase sólo una vez. Hay unos casos que son obligatorios (argumentos), mientras que otros son facultativos. No está permitido suprimir casos obligatorios; haciendo esto, obtenemos frases agrammaticales como: María dio las manzanas. Dentro de un predicado, los elementos que pueden asignar caso son los verbos y las preposiciones, que imponen el caso morfológico adecuado en los sintagmas nominales. A esta relación sintagmática se la denomina rección. Como puede verse, los casos gramaticales están íntimamente relacionados con los papeles temáticos, sin embargo la noción de caso es de naturaleza sintáctica, mientras la de papel temático es de naturaleza semántica. Análisis del discurso El análisis del discurso (o Estudios del discurso) es una transdisciplina de las ciencias humanas y sociales que estudia sistemáticamente el discurso escrito y hablado como una forma del uso de la lengua, como evento de comunicación y como interacción, en sus contextos cognitivos, sociales, políticos, históricos y culturales.
El primer lingüista moderno que comenzó el estudio de la relación de las condenas y acuñó el nombre de "analisis del discurso", que después se denota una rama de la lingüística aplicada, fue Zellig Harris. Su método consistía en utilizar un criterio de la distribución complementaria al igual que realiza el campo de la fonología, retoma a procedimientos de la lingüística descriptiva enfocándose también en las conexiones entre la situación social y el uso lingüístico. El Análisis del Discurso (AD) como disciplina independiente surgió en los años 1960 y 1970 en varias disciplinas y en varios países al mismo tiempo: la antropología, la lingüística, la filosofía, la poética, la sociología, la psicología cognitiva y social, la historia y las ciencias de la comunicación. El desarrollo del AD fue paralelo y relacionado con la emergencia de otras transdisciplinas, como la semiótica o semiología, la pragmática, la sociolingüística, la psicolingüística, la socioepistemología y la etnografía de la comunicación. En los últimos años el AD se ha hecho muy importante como aproximación cualitativa en las ciencias humanas y sociales. Van Dijk (1992) sugiere que en todos los niveles del discurso podemos encontrar "huellas del contexto". Estas huellas o indicios permiten entrever características sociales de los participantes como por ejemplo sexo, clase, etnicidad, edad, origen, posición y otras formas de pertenencia grupal. Además, sostiene que los contextos sociales son cambiantes y como usuarios de una lengua seguimos pasivamente a los dictados de grupo, sociedad o cultura. Métodos de análisis del discurso
Los métodos del AD son en general cualitativos: descripción detallada de las estructuras y estrategias de los discursos escritos o hablados, en varios niveles: sonidos y estructuras visuales y multimedia, la sintaxis (estructuras formales de las oraciones), la semántica (las estructuras del sentido y de la referencia), la pragmática (los actos de habla, la cortesía, etc.), la interacción y la conversación, los procesos y representaciones mentales de la producción y de la comprensión del discurso, y las relaciones de todas esas estructuras con los contextos sociales, políticas, históricas y culturales. En ese sentido el AD se distingue del análisis de contenido que este es un método más bien cuantitativo de las ciencias sociales que se aplica a grandes cantidades de textos, por ejemplo con una codificación de propiedades observables de los textos.
miércoles, 2 de mayo de 2012
Glosario
Absolute: Perfect in quality or nature; complete.
Adaptation: analogic change which extends the use of a glosseme.
Applications: A request pending at a patent office for the grant of a patent
Bound: a form which is not free.
Categories of a language: the functional meanings and class-meanings of a language.
Conflicting Forms: Distintion, being in conflict or disagreement; not compatible: conflicting viewpoints.
Connotations: A connotation is frequently described as either positive or negative, with regards to its pleasing or displeasing emotional connection.
Constituents: A structural unit of a definable syntactic, semantic, or phonological category that consists of one or more linguistic elements (as words, morphemes, or features) and that can occur as a component of a larger construction
Contamination: analogic change which creates or enlarges a glosseme.
Deduced: To reach (a conclusion) by reasoning.
Degenator: Is any marketing-related activity intended to publicize the availability of a vendor's product or service.
Described: To convey an idea or impression of; characterize
Dialects: a linguistic change in groups of persons between which communication is disturbed.
Different: that which is not the same.
Endocentric: Of or relating to a group of syntactically related words, at least one of which is functionally equivalent to the function of the whole group.
Exocentric: Of or relating to a group of syntactically related words, none of which is functionally equivalent to the function of the whole group. For example, none of the words in the phrase on the table is an adverb, yet they combine to form a phrase having adverbial function.
Explanation: A mutual clarification of misunderstandings; a reconciliation.
Formal analogy: analogic change of formatives.
Formative: a bound form which is part of a word.
Form-class: all forms having the same functions.
Forms: the vocal features common ´o same or partly same utterances.
Free forms: Having or characterized by a usually flowing asymmetrical shape or outline.
Free: a form which may be an utterance.
Frequency: Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. It is also referred to as temporal frequency. The period is the duration of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the reciprocal of the frequency
Function: the positions in which occurs.
Functional meaning: the meaning of a position.
Glosseme: whatever has a meaning.
Gramatical Forms: The representation of the way in which a sequence of words comes to be a well-formed sentence of a language. In a formal or artificial language grammar is laid down in formation rules, but the formation rules of natural languages are sufficiently complex to make accurate codification hazardous.
Homonyms: different forms which are alike as to phonemes.
Included: To take in or comprise as a part of a whole or group
Invalid: To incapacitate physically.
Labialized: when the lips are rounded during the production of the consonant.
Labiovelarized: both labialized and velarized.
Language: For mentalist, language is the expression of ideas, feelings or volitions.
Linguistic form: the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.
Loan-words: borrowed words.
Material: Material is anything made of matter, constituted of one or more substances.
Meanings: the corresponding stimulus-reaction-features.
Metaphor: A metaphor is a literary figure of speech that describes a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another otherwise unrelated object.
Minor: The determinant of a certain submatrix
Morpheme: the minimum form of a word.
Morphologic construction: the construction of formatives in a word.
Noeme: is the meaning of a glosseme.
Observations: The act or faculty of observing.
Order: A condition of logical or comprehensible arrangement among the separate elements of a group.
Ordinary Language: The phrase ordinary language is often used in philosophy and logic to distinguish between ordinary, unsurprising uses of terms and their more specialized uses in theorizing, or jargon. For example, the statements "I find that class of person very annoying" and "Birds fall into a different class from bees" might be said to contain ordinary English
Palatalization: during the production of a consonant, the tongue and lips take up, as far as compatible with the main features of the phoneme, the position of a front vowel.
Parts of the speech: the maximum word-classes of a language of a language.
Phoneme (or distinctive sound): a minimum same of vocal feature.
Phonetics: the branch of science that deals with sound-productiond and can be described empirically.
Phrase formative: a phrase that contain a bound form which is not a part of a word.
Pitch: frequency of vibration in the musical sound of the voice.
Position: each of the order units in a construction.
Prestige: Refers to a good reputation or high esteem, though in earlier usage, it meant showiness.
Proportional analogy: adaptation which replaces one alternant with another.
Reductive: Of or relating to reduction, Relating to, being an instance of, or exhibiting reductionism
Related languages: when a linguistic change results in groups of persons between which communication is impossible.
Same: that which is alike .
Selection: In the context of evolution, certain traits or alleles of genes segregating within a population may be subject to selection. Under selection, individuals with advantageous or "adaptive" traits tend to be more successful than their peers reproductively—meaning they contribute more offspring to the succeeding generation than others do.
Semantic change: analogic change of words.
Sentence: a maximum construction in any utterance.
Signification: The established meaning of a word
Speech: is taken to be an objectively observable activity of an organism, a succession or substitute stimuli and responses.
Speech-community: any such community.
Stable States: change in ecosystem conditions can result in an abrupt shift in the state of the ecosystem, such as a change in population or community composition.
Standard language: a relatively uniform auxiliary dialect used by such groups.
Stress: intensity or loudness.
Sub-categories: the meaning of the form class that contains relatively few forms.
Subclasses: A category in biological classification ranking below a class and above an order
Substitution: linguistic substitution of phonemes.
Substitutions: The act, process, or result of substituting one thing for another
Superficial: Presenting only an appearance without substance or significance
Suppletive: occurs when in a construction all the component forms are irregular.
Syntactic construction: the construction of free forms (and phrase-formatives in a phrase.
Utterance: an act of speech.
Velarization: in which the tongue is retracted as for a back vowel.
Word: a minimum free form.
Word-class: a form-class of words.
Leonard Bloomfield main contributions to linguistics
American Structuralism
Ethnography and Linguistic Ethnography
Linguistic ethnography generally holds that language and social life are mutually shaping, and that close analysis of situated language use can provide both fundamental and distinctive insights into mechanisms and dynamics of social and cultural production in every activity. The most representative linguists of ethnolinguistics were Franz Boas and Edward Sapir.
Boas encouraged the far field concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to physical anthropology, linguistics, archeology as well as cultural anthropology. His work in these field was pioneer; in physical anthropology, he led scholars away from static taxonomical classification of race to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic philology and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with polish- English anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant- observer method of fieldwork. They worked with American-Indian tribes in order to establish their theories. Edward Sapir (1884–1939) was an American anthropologist-linguist widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the early development of the disciplines of linguistics. With his solid linguistic background, Sapir became the one student of Boas to develop most completely the relationship between linguistics and anthropology. Sapir studied the ways in which language and culture influence each other, and he was interested in the relation between linguistic differences, and differences in cultural world views.
This part of his thinking was developed by his student Benjamin Lee Whorf into the principle of linguistic relativity or the "Sapir-Whorf" hypothesis. In anthropology Sapir is known as an early proponent of the importance of psychology to anthropology, maintaining that understanding relationships between different individual personalities is important for the ways in ways in which culture and society develop. Among his major contributions to linguistics is his classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas, which he elaborated for most of his professional life. He played an important role in developing the modern concept of the phoneme, greatly advancing the understanding of phonology. Before Sapir it was generally considered impossible to apply the methods of historical linguistics to languages of indigenous peoples because they were believed to be more primitive than the Indo-European languages. Sapir was the first to prove that the methods of comparative linguistics were equally valid when applied to indigenous languages.
miércoles, 7 de marzo de 2012
Prague School
The Prague School practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics. The hallmark of Prague linguistics was that it saw language in terms of function. They analyzed a given language with a view to showing the respective functions played by the various structural components in the use of the entire language.
The Prague linguistics looked at languages as one might look at a motor, seeking to understand what jobs the various components were doing and how the nature of one component determined the nature of others.
They used the notion of ‘phoneme and morpheme’, for instance; but they tried to go beyond descriptions to explanation, saying not just what languages were like but why they were the way they were.
One example of functional explanation concerns his use of terms commonly translated theme and rheme, and the notion which has to be called ‘Functional Sentence Perspective’: the theme, which refers to something about which the hearer already knows, and the rheme, which states some new fact about that given topic. Very often, the theme/rheme division will correspond to the syntactic distinction between subject and predicate, or between subject-plus-transitive-verb and object: we may say John kissed Eve because we have been talking about John and want to say wht he did next, or because the hearer knows that John kissed Eve because we have been talking about John want to say what he did next, or because the hearer knows that john kissed someone and want to tell him who it was.
Many Prague linguistics were actively interested in questions of standardizing linguistic usage.
Prince Nicolai Sergeyvich Trubetzkoy (1890-1938) was one of the members of the ‘PragueSchool’ and he was from Russia. Trubetzkoy’s ides today chiefly through the book, Principles of Phonology, he gives a central role to the phoneme; but Trubetzkoy, and the Prague School in general were interested primarily in the paradigmatic relations between phonemes, i.e. the nature of the oppositions between the phonemes that potentially contrast one another at a given point in a phonological structure.
Trubetzkoy, in the Principles, establishes a rather sophisticated system of phonological typology – that is, a system which enables us to say what kind of phonology a language has. Typology was another distinctive preoccupation of the Prague School; ‘linguistic characterology’, which aimed to enable one to discuss what kind of grammar a language has.
Roman Jakobson (b. 1896) is a scholar of Russian origin; he studied and thought in Praga. Jakobson was one of the founding members of thePrague Linguistic Circle.
Jakobson represents one of the very few personal links between European an American traditions of linguistics, and his ides have much to do with the radical change of direction that has occurred in American linguistics over the last twenty years.
The most important aspect of Jacobson’s work is his phonological theory. Here Jakobson is recognizably a member of the Prague School– like Trubetzkoy he is interested in the analysis of phonemes into their component features rather than in the distribution of phonemes.
The essence of Jakobson’s approach to phonology is the notion that there is a relatively simple, orderly, universal ‘psychological system’ of sounds underlying the the chaotic wealth of different kinds of sounds observed by the phonetician.
Jakobson’s important contributions:
Speech sounds. - A vowel may be ‘close or open’
-Vowels may be ‘front’ or ‘back’
- Any vowel (and many consonants) can be ‘nasal’ or ‘oral’
One of the lessons of the articulatory phonetics is that human vocal anatomy provides a very large range of different parameters (articulation points).
All our sounds are made with air forced of the lungs by the respiratory muscles; and the wide range of possible vocal-chord actions are only marginally exploited, for the simple voiced/voiceless distinction and for the use of pitch in stress and intonation, the later being relatively peripheral matters in English phonology.
The notion that the universal distinctive features are organized into an innate hierarchy of relative importance or priority appears in a book (Jakobson 1941). He makes the point, to begin with, that the study of children’s acquisition of language shows that the various distinctions are by no means mastered in a random order.
One of the characteristics of Prague approach to language was a readiness to acknowledge that a given language might include a range of alternative ‘systems’, ‘registers’, or ‘styles’, where American Descriptivist’s tended to insist on treating a language as a single unitary system.
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Linguistics: The study of language as a system of human communication.
Semantics: The history of meanings in language, including historical changes.
Prescriptive Linguistics: Attemps to lay down rules of correctness as to how language should be used.
Descriptive Linguistics: It is used to describe the facts of linguistics usage as they are without personal judgement of how they ought to be.
Ethnography: The study of life and culture of a society or ethnic group, especially by personal observation without any judgement.
Ethnolinguistics: A branch of linguistics which studies language in relation to the investigation of ethnic types and behavior.
Sociolinguistics: The study of language in relation to social factors, that is class, educational level and type for education, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc.
Generative Grammar: A set of rules whereby permissible sentences may be generated from the elements of a language. All humans are able to produce languages.
Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical compentence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.
Neurolinguistics: A branch of linguistics, sometimes called neurological linguistics, which studies the neurological basis of language development and use, and attempts to construct a model of the brain's control over the processes of speaking, listening, reading, writing, and signing.
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